Affirmation 肯定語的表達方式
Yes-man（通常指唯唯諾諾的人，所謂應聲蟲）is a person who always agrees with people in authority in order to gain their approval. Yes-sir（強調完全同意）is used to say that you agree very strongly and to emphasize your agreement. Yes and no（也是也不是，不好說，說不準）is used when there is not one clear answer to a question. Yes, but … is used to show that you agree with what someone has said, but there is another fact to consider: “There are a lot of problems with his proposal.” “Yes, but it’s the best one we have.”
“Yes” is the simplest and most direct form of AFFIRMATION（肯定）, “No” is that of DENIAL（否定）. “No” is used to give a negative reply to a question, offer, or request. 當中，說話者的語調、語氣、暗示以至弦外之音可以大有分別。有時，Yes 或 No 意猶未盡，還需要運用變奏或採用其他方式補充一下，才可以充分表達說話者的目的。
1. Simple Affirmation
代替 Yes 的肯定說法，都可能有不同的語調或者弦外之音。（Substitutes for the simple Yes may carry overtones.）最接近、最沒有弦外之音的肯定表達方法，是重複文法上稱作助動調（auxiliary verb）或 the verb “to be”（be, do, have to show tense）：The nearest equivalent to a simple Yes is the idiomatic use of a repeated auxiliary verb or the verb “to be”, it normally carries no overtone.
“Have you finished reading the book I lent you?” “I have.”
“Did you read the book I gave you?” “I did.”
“Were you at the party last night?” “I was.”
肯定答法還可以採用文法上稱作副動詞（adverbials）的 “Certainly”, “Naturally” 或 “Of course”（= “It goes without saying” or “There’s no doubt about it”）。
2. Stating Your Concurrence
表示直接同意或看法一致的口語說法可以考慮採用：This is true. That’s true. That’s right, You’re right. That’s for sure. Well said. I agree. I couldn’t agree with you more. We see eye to eye on this. I couldn’t have said it better. You took the words right out of my mouth.
3. 採用某些動詞再加上 “so”，表示肯定中帶點猶疑，例如：“Shakespeare was born in 1564, wasn’t he?” “I think so.” or “I believe so.”（= “but I’m not sure.”） or “So they say.”（the speaker will not venture his personal opinion） or “So I understand.” or “So I’ve read.”。而 “I suppose so” 則猶豫不肯定的程度又高一點，例如：“It looks as if we shall have to stay the night here after all.” “I suppose so.”
4. Emphatic Assertion
加重語氣的肯定說法，例如：“The cost-of-living is dreadfully high.” “I’ll say it is.” or “It is indeed.” or “It certainly is.”
5. 為了禮貌而放輕語調，可以說 “I am afraid so”，例如：“Must you go now?” “I’m afraid so.”
6. 想加上一點意外和警喜，可以說 “Really” 或 “Indeed”，例如：“There’ll be free beer at the city pub tomorrow.” “Indeed!”（“Indeed?” or “Indeed.” as a simple acknowledgement of fact.）
7. 最後，表示肯定，也可以採用很流行的 question-tag 回答（By way of comment, a statement can be answered by a question-tag. A question- tag is a phrase such as “isn’t it?” or “don’t you?” that you add to the end of a statement to make it a question or to check that someone agrees with you），例如：“Well, that was a very nice party.” “Yes, wasn’t it?”
Denial 否定語的表達方式
1. 跟 Yes 一樣，No 沒有完全百分百的代替品，除了上文引述過的助動詞（auxiliary verb）或 the verb “to be”。The simple No has no exact substitute except the use of the repeated auxiliary verb or the verb “to be” used either with or without No.
“Have you bought your lunch yet?” “No, I haven’t.”
“Were you at the party last night?” “No, I wasn’t.” or “I wasn’t.”
2. “I believe so” 可以變成否定句：change in the negative to “I don’t believe he did”, or “I don’t believe so”。例如：“Did Shakespeare ever act in his native town?” “I don’t believe he did.” or “I don’t believe so.” or “I don’t think so.”
3. The adverbial negatives such as “Certainly not”, “Of course not”, “Naturally not” can carry with them some barbed and condescending overtones（可以帶點諷刺或挖苦或優越感的弦外之音）。另一些片語 “That isn’t so”, “That isn’t right”, “You’re wrong” 可以是較直率而堅決的否定方式（firm but abrupt forms of denials），效果近乎 “Not at all” 或 “None at all”。
4. 陳述強烈不同意或斷然拒絕的否定說法（denial expressions），還有：“I disagree completely”; “I couldn’t disagree with you more”; “That’s a lot of baloney”; “That’s a bunch of malarkey”; “You’re lying through your teeth”; “I can’t stand it”; “I don’t like it”; “No way”; “Absolutely not.”
